By Betty Too

Conflict management is a process that involves identifying, addressing, and resolving conflicts in a constructive manner. The starting point in conflict management is the identification of sources of conflict (Rahim, 2002). Identification is then succeeded by the selection of appropriate strategies to resolve the conflict. These strategies include negotiation, mediation, and arbitration. Once appropriate strategies are in place, effective conflict managers proceed to implement them.

A closely related concept to conflict management is peacebuilding. It is the promotion of social, economic, and political conditions that foster peaceful coexistence. Implicit in peacebuilding is the prevention of violent conflicts from arising. Building sustainable peace entails addressing the root causes of conflict, promoting reconciliation and healing, and establishing a shared vision for a peaceful future (Lederach, 1997). This can be realised in various ways, such as community dialogue, conflict transformation workshops, and promotion of human rights and social justice.

In terms of conflict management and peacebuilding, gender plays a critical role as both men and women experience conflict differently and have unique perspectives and contributions to make in peace processes. According to UN Women (2019), women’s participation in peace negotiations can lead to the inclusion of gender-sensitive provisions in peace agreements, as well as greater attention to issues such as gender-based violence, women’s economic empowerment, and women’s participation in decision-making processes. According to Caprioli (2005), societies with higher levels of gender equality are less likely to experience civil conflict, suggesting that addressing gender inequality can be a critical aspect of preventing conflict. Moreover, gender stereotypes and biases can also contribute to the perpetuation of conflict and undermine efforts to build peace. Addressing these biases and promoting gender equality can create more inclusive and effective conflict management and peacebuilding processes.

Likewise, in Kenya, women’s organisations played a critical role in conflict management and peacebuilding efforts during the post-election violence in 2007-2008. Accordingly, women’s organisations played a critical role in promoting peace and reconciliation during the post- election violence in Kenya.

The paper aims to highlight the importance of women’s participation in peacebuilding efforts and provide insights into the challenges faced by women’s organisations in their peacebuilding work. The paper also seeks to identify opportunities for strengthening the role of women’s organisations in peacebuilding, and to showcase successful women-led peacebuilding initiatives in Kenya as examples of the impact of gender-sensitive approaches to peacebuilding. Overall, the paper aims to contribute to a greater understanding of the role of gender in conflict management and peacebuilding, with a focus on the case of women’s organisations in Kenya

 

Understanding the context of violence in Kenya

Kenya is a society characterised by deeply embedded structural violence. According to Galtung, “violence is present when human beings are influenced so that their actual somatic and mental realisations are below their potential realisations” (Galtung, 1969). Structural violence in Kenya manifests itself in anomalous legal, political, social and economic structures. These structures prevent many Kenyans from achieving their full potential. Structural violence if not addressed for prolonged periods of time may eventually lead to physical violence as life in the structure becomes unbearable (Mwagiru, 2000).

Historically, social relations between the dominant ethnic groups, the Kalenjis and the Kikuyus, and conflicts have frequently resulted from competition for the limited amount of arable land. This tense relationship has continuously changed throughout generational shifts, though it hasn’t really vanished (Adeagbo & Iyi, 2011). Accordingly, this long-standing rivalry was reignited when multi-party politics were introduced in the 1990s, opening up new vistas for its expression. Also, it has been noted that Party zones distinguish Kenya’s political landscape because each party’s support and affiliation tend to be concentrated in specific geographic areas (Adeagbo & Iyi, 2011. Except in urban areas and other multi-ethnic societies, such support, particularly among opposition parties, is based on ethnicity (Kamungi, 2001). For instance, it was noted that the 1992 clashes affected over 300,000 people and resulted in thousands of people being displaced (Adeagbo & Iyi, 2011). As a result, political disputes, racial tension, unemployment, poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, a weak security system, and a general lack of political will to address the causes of the violence and displacement led to repeated acts of violence throughout the 1990s (Adeagbo & Iyi, 2011).

The 1992 crisis served as a reminder of the ethnic tension underpinning Kenya’s political process as the 2007 elections drew near, which is to be expected given the country’s recent violent history. For instance, the Human Rights Watch (1997) report noted that violent land disputes characterised Kenyan political life as early as 1993. When Kibaki was re-elected as president, disagreements between the parties involved arose immediately after the announcement of Kenya’s December 2007 elections, leading to communal clashes that resulted in over 1,000 fatalities and over 600,000 Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). According to reports from 2007, this was the worst case of political violence in Kenyan history. Brutal violence characterised the crisis.

Ghastly murders committed because of differences in political allegiances and ethnic identities defined the crisis. Power-seeking organisations mistreated women and children and committed numerous violations of human rights. As many Kenyans chose to violate their fellow citizens’ basic human rights with impunity during this time, the rule of law and human rights were perceived as alien by the populace. The pattern of violence varied greatly across the nation and was complex. Violence was sporadic and occasionally uncalled for during this time (Adeagbo & Iyi, 2011).

Causes of The Violence

Kenya has experienced various forms of conflict throughout its history, including ethnic, political, and communal violence. According to a report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the underlying causes of the violence included land disputes, ethnic tensions, and a lack of effective governance (UNDP, 2008). The report also highlighted the role of youth unemployment and poverty in fueling the violence.

In fact, land disputes have also been a significant source of conflict in Kenya. According to Mwangi and Ondimu (2018), land disputes in Kenya are often rooted in historical injustices and unequal access to land, which has led to land grabbing and displacement of communities. Meanwhile, land disputes in Kenya have their roots in the pre-colonial era, when mighty communities conquered and seized the land of the underprivileged. It was a time when the strongest group dominated the weaker ones and appropriated their resources, especially grazing lands, similar to the Hobbesian state of nature where the strongest group gets everything (see Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan). This system of economic relationships survived colonial rule, but the perceived injustices and exploitation manifested themselves in cyclical violence that occurred repeatedly across the nation. Even today, the evicted communities are still present on the periphery of the economic structures. For instance, a large portion of the organised violence in the Rift Valley was caused by a land dispute because pastoralists lived there while the Kikuyu and other communities engaged in agriculture did not (Adeagbo & Iyi, 2011).

Ethnic tensions played a significant role in the violence, as people were targeted based on their ethnic identity. According to a report by Human Rights Watch, political leaders used ethnicity as a tool to mobilise supporters and incite violence (Human Rights Watch, 2008). The use of ethnicity in political mobilisation and violence in Kenya is a long-standing problem that has been exacerbated by a lack of effective governance and a weak justice system. The report also notes that the lack of accountability for past incidents of ethnic violence has contributed to a culture of impunity, which perpetuates the cycle of violence. In other words, ethnicity follows from the aforementioned and was a major factor in Kenya’s post-election violence in 2007. Due to perceived discrimination, injustices, and inequality in the distribution of resources among the various ethnic groups, what started as a response to a fraudulent election quickly turned into ethnic violence. According to some, Kenyan politics have been heavily influenced by ethnic coherence and loyalty ever since the country gained its independence. Control of the state is essential to political competition because it allows ethnic elites to maintain power through patronage and access to resources (Kamungi, 2001).

In terms of economic and political inequality, belonging to one of Kenya’s superior and favoured ethnic tribes gives one an advantage over the less fortunate tribes in gaining access to the nation’s political and economic resources. The post-election violence in Kenya in 2007 had a number of major root causes, including economic and political inequality. A report by the International Crisis Group (ICG) also identified inequality as a key factor driving conflict in Kenya. The report notes that political and economic exclusion has led to widespread grievances among marginalised communities, particularly in the northern and coastal regions of the country (ICG, 2016). Similarly, a report by the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) notes that economic inequality and marginalisation have contributed to the emergence of armed groups in Kenya. The report argues that the lack of access to basic services and economic opportunities has fueled grievances and contributed to the emergence of groups like the Mombasa Republican Council (ISS, 2015). For instance, most people believed that the Kikuyu and Central Province had been taking advantage of Kenya’s economic and political resources more so than other regions or tribes both before and after independence (Stewart, 2008).

Actors of Violence

The violence that occurred in Kenya following the disputed presidential election in 2007 involved a range of actors, including political leaders, ethnic militias, and criminal gangs. According to a report by Human Rights Watch, political leaders played a significant role in inciting violence and mobilising supporters along ethnic lines. The report notes that some politicians used inflammatory language to incite violence and promote ethnic divisions. It also describes how political violence was often planned and organised along ethnic lines (Human Rights Watch, 2008). Also, a report by the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) also notes that ethnic militias and criminal gangs were involved in the violence. The report highlights how these groups targeted individuals based on their ethnic identity and carried out acts of violence, including arson, looting, and sexual violence (OCHA, 2008). Along the line, a report by the International Crisis Group (ICG) identifies a range of actors involved in the violence, including militias, criminal gangs, and vigilante groups. The report notes that these groups were often linked to political leaders and were used to carry out acts of violence and intimidation (ICG, 2008).

Gender participation in conflict management and peacebuilding

Understanding the gendered nature of conflicts and peacebuilding interventions is crucial to promote sustainable and inclusive peace. In fact, the inclusion of women in peacebuilding processes is essential for promoting gender equality, human rights, and sustainable peace. Women’s meaningful participation in decision-making can enhance the effectiveness, legitimacy, and sustainability of peacebuilding initiatives. Several studies have shown that women’s groups and movements have played a critical role in promoting peace and reconciliation in various conflict-affected contexts (e.g., Nepal, Liberia, and Colombia). The United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) and subsequent resolutions call for the participation of women at all levels of peacebuilding and the integration of gender perspectives into all aspects of peace processes. However, the implementation of these resolutions remains a challenge, and women’s participation in peacebuilding continues to be limited and marginalised in many contexts. For example, Bellamy and Williams (2010) argue that women’s participation in formal peace negotiations remains low, and they are often excluded from the high-level decision-making processes.

According to Paffenholz’s (2016) effective and sustainable peacebuilding requires the inclusion of gender perspectives and the involvement of local actors. Accordingly, local actors, including civil society organisations, women’s groups, and grassroots movements, have a crucial role to play in peacebuilding efforts, as they have a deep understanding of the local context and are better placed to design and implement interventions that are locally relevant and sustainable. The inclusion of gender perspectives in peacebuilding is essential for addressing the root causes of conflict and promoting sustainable peace. Gender mainstreaming should not be seen as an add-on, but rather as an integral part of peacebuilding efforts. Meanwhile, women’s participation in peacebuilding should not be limited to the representation of women in decision- making positions, but should include the participation of women in all stages of the peacebuilding process, including the design and implementation of interventions. In addition, local ownership and participation in peacebuilding are essential for promoting sustainable peace. Peacebuilding interventions should be designed and implemented in collaboration with local actors, with a focus on building local capacities and strengthening local institutions.

Bellamy, Williams, and Griffin (2010) discuss gender participation in conflict management and peacebuilding. They note that women have historically been underrepresented in these fields, but that there has been a growing recognition of the importance of including women in these processes. They argue that women’s participation can bring unique perspectives and approaches to conflict management and peacebuilding. For example, women may be more likely to prioritise the needs of families and communities, which can help to build more sustainable peace. Additionally, women may have different communication styles and problem-solving strategies, which can enhance the effectiveness of peace negotiations. In addition, they say that women’s participation is not just important for the sake of representation. It is also important because women are often disproportionately affected by conflict and violence. Including women in peacebuilding processes can help to ensure that their perspectives and needs are taken into account.

Women’s organisations in conflict management and peacebuilding

Women’s organisations have played an important role in conflict management and peacebuilding efforts. These organisations often bring unique perspectives and approaches to these processes, and can help to ensure that the needs and perspectives of women are taken into account. First of all, one of the key contributions of women’s organisations in conflict management and peacebuilding is their ability to bring attention to issues that may be overlooked by traditional actors. For example, women’s organisations may highlight the impact of conflict on women and children, or advocate for the inclusion of women in peace negotiations. Secondly, women’s organisations can also play a role in promoting dialogue and building relationships between conflicting parties. They may facilitate community meetings, organise workshops, or provide mediation services. By doing so, they can help to create spaces for dialogue and cooperation, and build bridges between different groups. Another important contribution of women’s organisations in conflict management and peacebuilding is their focus on long-term sustainability. Women’s organisations often prioritise building relationships and networks within communities, and work to create lasting peace by addressing the root causes of conflict. This focus on long-term sustainability can help to ensure that peacebuilding efforts are successful in the long run (Porter, 2003).

Women’s organisations have been at the forefront of peacebuilding initiatives in various conflict-affected contexts, such as Northern Ireland, Liberia, and Rwanda. These organisations have played a critical role in advocating for women’s rights and gender equality, promoting peace and reconciliation, and providing support and services to women affected by conflict. For example, the Women’s Coalition in Northern Ireland brought together women from different political, religious, and social backgrounds to participate in peace negotiations and advocate for gender-sensitive policies (Nagel, 2015). Similarly, the Women’s Platform for Peace, Security, and Justice in Liberia mobilised women’s groups and networks to promote peace and reconciliation and ensure women’s participation in the post-conflict reconstruction process (Masitoh, 2020).

 

Case study: Women’s peacebuilding initiatives in Kenya

Women’s peacebuilding initiatives in Kenya have been an important aspect of conflict management and peacebuilding efforts in the country. A notable case study of women’s peacebuilding initiatives in Kenya is the work of the Women’s Peace Table (WPT), which was established in 2008. In fact, the WPT brought together women from different ethnic and religious backgrounds to work towards peace and reconciliation in areas affected by post- election violence in 2007-2008. The initiative was led by women’s organisations including the Maendeleo ya Wanawake Organization (MYWO) and the National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK) (Wairimu, 2017).

The WPT held community meetings and conducted consultations to identify the root causes of the violence and to develop solutions for sustainable peace. In order to promote their involvement in peace processes, the women also organised interfaith prayers, peace marches, and conversations with political leaders. The National Accord and Reconciliation Act, which established a power-sharing agreement between political parties and resulted in the formation of a coalition government, was signed in 2008 thanks to the work of the WPT. In order to continue working towards enduring peace, the women’s organisations involved in the WPT also established a national Women’s Caucus on Peacebuilding (Konde, 2019).

 

The work of the WPT contributed to the signing of the National Accord and Reconciliation Act in 2008, which established a power-sharing agreement between political parties and led to the formation of a coalition government. The women’s organisations involved in the WPT also established a national Women’s Caucus on Peacebuilding to continue their work towards sustainable peace.

Women’s organisations in Kenya have played a critical role in peacebuilding efforts in the country. These organisations have brought attention to the unique challenges faced by women and children in conflict situations and have advocated for their inclusion in peacebuilding processes. They have also worked to promote dialogue, build relationships between conflicting parties, and address the root causes of conflict. One example of the specific role of women’s organisations in peacebuilding in Kenya is the work of the Women’s Empowerment Link (WEL), a non-governmental organisation (NGO) that focuses on gender and human rights issues. WEL has been involved in peacebuilding efforts in areas affected by ethnic and political violence, and has worked to empower women and girls to become active agents of change in their communities. WEL has also provided training and support to women’s groups to enable them to participate in peace negotiations and other peacebuilding activities (Mbugua, 2017).

Another example is the work of the Maendeleo ya Wanawake Organization (MYWO), one of the oldest and largest women’s organisations in Kenya (Mbugua, 2017). MYWO has been involved in peacebuilding efforts since the 1990s and has played a key role in promoting the participation of women in peace negotiations and other peacebuilding activities. MYWO has also worked to address the root causes of conflict, including poverty, inequality, and lack of access to resources, and has advocated for the inclusion of women’s perspectives in development policies (Mbugua, 2017).

The role of women’s organisations in peacebuilding in Kenya has been recognized at the national and international levels. In 2015, the Kenyan government established the National Steering Committee on Peacebuilding and Conflict Management, which includes representatives from women’s organisations. At the international level, the United Nations has recognized the important role of women’s organisations in peacebuilding and has called for their increased participation in peace processes (Achieng, 2015).

Women’s organisations have played a critical role in mediating ethnic and inter-communal conflicts in Kenya. These conflicts are often triggered by disputes over land, resources, or political representation, and can result in violence and displacement. Women organisations have been involved in promoting dialogue and reconciliation between communities, supporting peacebuilding initiatives, and providing humanitarian assistance to those affected by conflict. (Nyukuri, 2006).

In terms of Gender-based violence, women organisations have been at the forefront of efforts to address gender-based violence in Kenya. This includes domestic violence, sexual violence, and other forms of gender-based violence that are often exacerbated by conflict. Women organisations have been involved in providing support to survivors of violence, advocating for stronger laws and policies to address gender-based violence, and promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment.

In terms of Political conflicts, women organisations have also been involved in promoting peace and reconciliation in the context of political conflicts in Kenya. These conflicts can arise during elections, when political tensions run high, or when there are disputes over political representation. Women organisations have been involved in promoting dialogue, supporting peaceful elections, and advocating for the participation of women in political processes. For instance, Castillejo’s (2022) report, “Women’s participation and influence in post-conflict reform: the case of Kenya,” examines the role of women in post-conflict reconstruction in Kenya. The report highlights the significant contributions of women’s organisations in peacebuilding efforts in the country and identifies challenges to women’s participation in post- conflict reform processes. It also notes that women’s organisations have played a critical role in advocating for the inclusion of women in peace negotiations and other peacebuilding activities. These organisations have also worked to address the root causes of conflict, including poverty, inequality, and lack of access to resources. The report further highlights the importance of women’s participation in post-conflict reform processes, noting that their inclusion can help to ensure that the needs and perspectives of women are taken into account and can contribute to the long-term sustainability of peace.

However, the report also identifies challenges to women’s participation in post-conflict reform processes in Kenya. These challenges include a lack of political will to prioritise women’s participation and inclusion, limited resources for women’s organisations, and cultural barriers that limit women’s ability to participate in decision-making processes. The report concludes by offering recommendations for policymakers and practitioners to address these challenges and promote the meaningful participation of women in post-conflict reform processes in Kenya.

 

Challenges

Women’s organisations have faced numerous challenges in their peacebuilding efforts in Kenya. These challenges have included political, social, and economic barriers that limit their ability to participate in decision-making processes and advocate for their rights (Mung’ou, 2018).

One key challenge faced by women’s organisations is the lack of political will to prioritise women’s participation in peacebuilding efforts. This can limit their ability to access funding and resources, as well as their ability to participate in decision-making processes. Additionally, cultural and social norms that limit women’s mobility and restrict their participation in public life can also pose significant barriers to their involvement in peacebuilding efforts (Shvedova, 2005).

Another challenge faced by women’s organisations in Kenya is the limited resources available to support their work (Mwobobia, 2012). This can include a lack of funding for their programs, limited access to technology and other resources, and a lack of organisational capacity to effectively carry out their work.

Additionally, women’s organisations may face security risks when working in conflict-affected areas. This can include threats of violence, intimidation, and harassment, which can limit their ability to carry out their work and advocate for their rights.

 

Recommendations

Ensuring meaningful participation of women in decision-making processes: There is a need to ensure that women are included in decision-making processes related to conflict management and peacebuilding in Kenya. This can be achieved by providing opportunities for women’s organisations to participate in decision-making processes and ensuring that women’s perspectives are taken into account.

Providing financial and technical support to women’s organisations: Women’s organisations need support to carry out their work effectively. This includes financial support for their programs and activities, as well as technical support in areas such as organisational development, fundraising, and advocacy.

Addressing cultural barriers to women’s participation: Cultural and social norms that limit women’s mobility and restrict their participation in public life need to be addressed. This can be achieved through awareness-raising campaigns, education and training programs, and engaging with religious and traditional leaders.

Promoting women’s leadership and representation: Women’s leadership and representation need to be promoted in all areas of conflict management and peacebuilding in Kenya. This can be achieved through affirmative action measures, such as quotas for women’s representation in decision-making bodies.

Addressing gender-based violence: Gender-based violence is a significant barrier to women’s participation in conflict management and peacebuilding in Kenya. Addressing this issue requires a comprehensive approach, including prevention, protection, and response measures.

Conclusion

In conclusion, women’s organisations have played a critical role in promoting gender-sensitive conflict management and peacebuilding in Kenya. They have brought unique perspectives and approaches to these processes, highlighting the impact of conflict on women and children, and advocating for the inclusion of women in peace negotiations. Women’s organisations have also played a role in promoting dialogue and building relationships between conflicting parties, and focusing on long-term sustainability to address the root causes of conflict.

However, women’s organisations in Kenya face several challenges, including limited access to resources and decision-making processes, cultural barriers to women’s participation, and gender-based violence. To promote the role of gender in conflict management and peacebuilding in Kenya, it is important to ensure meaningful participation of women in decision-making processes, provide financial and technical support to women’s organisations, address cultural barriers to women’s participation, promote women’s leadership and representation, and address gender-based violence.

In Africa, gender-sensitive approaches can help to address the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination and violence that women and girls face. This includes addressing the gendered impacts of conflict and violence, promoting women’s participation and leadership in peace processes, and addressing the underlying social, economic, and political factors that perpetuate gender inequalities.

 

Women’s organisations in Africa have been at the forefront of advocating for gender-sensitive approaches to conflict management and peacebuilding. These organisations have played a critical role in promoting women’s rights and gender equality, and in advocating for the inclusion of women in decision-making processes.

However, there is still much work to be done to ensure that gender-sensitive approaches are integrated into conflict management and peacebuilding efforts in Africa. This requires sustained efforts to address the root causes of conflict and violence, and to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment at all levels of society.

 

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